Radio Engineering for Wireless Communication and Sensor Applications
Antti V. Raisanen Arto Lehto
Contents
Preface xv
Acknowledgments xvii
1 Introduction to Radio Waves and Radio Engineering 1
1.1 Radio Waves as a Part of the Electromagnetic Spectrum
1.2 What Is Radio Engineering? 4
1.3 Allocation of Radio Frequencies 4
1.4 History of Radio Engineering from Maxwell to the Present 6 References 9
2 Fundamentals of Electromagnetic Fields
2.1 Maxwell's Equations 11
2.1.1 Maxwell's Equations in Case of Harmonic Time Dependence 14
2.1.2 Interpretations of Maxwell's Equations 15
2.2 Fields in Media 17
2.3 Boundary Conditions 20
2.4 Helmholtz Equation and Its Plane Wave Solution 22
2.5 Polarization of a Plane Wave 26
2.6 Reflection and Transmission at a Dielectric Interface 28
2.7 Energy and Power 31
References 33
3 Transmission Lines and Waveguides 35
3.1 Basic Equations for Transmission Lines and Waveguides 38
3.2 Transverse Electromagnetic Wave Modes 40
3.3 Transverse Electric and Transverse Magnetic Wave Modes 42
3.4 Rectangular Waveguide 44
3.4.1 TE Wave Modes in Rectangular Waveguide 44
3.4.2 TM Wave Modes in Rectangular Waveguide 50
3.5 Circular Waveguide 52
3.6 Optical Fiber 56
3.7 Coaxial Line 58
3.8 Microstrip Line 61
3.9 Wave and Signal Velocities 65
3.10 Transmission Line Model 66
References
4 Impedance Matching 69
4.1 Reflection from a Mismatched Load 69
4.2 Smith Chart 74
4.3 Marching Merhods 78
4.3.1 Matching with Lumped Reactive Elements 79
4.3.2 Matching with Tuning Srubs (wirh Short Sections of Line) 86
4.3.3 Quarter-Wave Transformer 89
4.3.4 Resistive
Matching 94
References 95
5 Microwave Circuit Theory 97
5.1 Impedance and Admittance Matrices 97
5.2 Scarrering Matrices 101
5.3 Signal Flow Graph, Transfer Function, and Gain 104
5.3.1 Masons Rule 109
5.3.2 Gain of a Two-Porr 111
References 113
6 Passive Transmission Line and Waveguide Devices 115
6.1 Power Dividers and Directional Couplers 116
6.1.1 Power Dividers 117
6.1.2 Coupling and Directivity of a Directional Coupler 119
6.1.3 Scattering Matrix of a Directional Coupler 120
6.1.4 Waveguide Directional Couplers 122
6.1.5 Microstrip Directional Couplers 124
6.2 Ferrite Devices 128
6.2.1 Properties of Ferrite Materials
6.2.2 Faraday Rotation 131
6.2.3 Isolators 133
6.2.4 Circulators 4
6.3 Other Passive Components and Devices 134
6.3.1 Terminations 135
6.3.2 Attenuators 6
6.3.3 Phase Shifters 138
6.3.4 Connectors and Adapters 13
References 139
7 Resonators and Filters 141
7.1 Resonators 141
7.1.1 Resonance Phenomenon 142
7.1.2 Quality Factor 14
7.1.3 Coupled Resonator 144
7.1.4 Transmission Line Section as a Resonator 147
7.1.5 Caviry Resonarors 149
7.1.6 Dielectric Resonarors 153
7.2 Filters 154
7.2.1 Insertion Loss Method 155
7.2.2 Design of Microwave Filters 161
7.2.3 Practical Microwave Filters 166
References 169
8 Circuits Based on Semiconductor Devices 171
8.1 From Electron Tubes to Semiconductor Devices 171
8.2 Important Semiconductor Devices 172
8.2.1 Diodes 172
8.2.2 Transistors 7
8.3 Oscillators
8.4 Amplifiers 184
8.4.1 Design of Small-Signal and Low-Noise Amplifiers 184
8.4.2 Effect of Nonlinearities and Design of Power Amplifiers 191
8.4.3 Reflection Amplifiers 192
8.5 Frequency Converters (Mixers) and Frequency Multipliers 193
8.5.1 Mixers 4
8.5.2 Frequency Multipliers 197
8.6 Detectors 198
8.7 Monolithic Microwave Circuits 201
References 202
9 Antennas 205
9.1 Fundamental Concepts of Antennas 205
9.2 Calculation of Radiation from Anrennas 212
9.3 Radiating Current Elemenr 214
9.4 Dipole and Monopole Antennas 217
9.5 Orher Wire Antennas 222
9.6 Radiation from Apertures 225
9.7 Horn Anrennas 232
9.8 Reflector Anrennas 234
9.9 Other Antennas 236
9.10 Antenna Arrays 239
9.11 Marching of Anrennas 242
9.12 Link Between Two Antennas 242
References
10 Propagation of Radio Waves 247
10.1 Environment and Propagation Mechanisms 247
10.2 Tropospheric Attenuation 249
10.3 Bending (Refraction) of Radio Waves in Troposphere 252
10.4 LOS Path 255
10.5 Reflection from Ground 257
10.6 Multipath Propagation in Cellular Mobile Radio Systems 260
10.7 Propagation Aided by Scattering: Scatter Link 263
10.8 Propagation via Ionosphere 265
10.9 Propagation as a Ground (Surface) Wave 267
References 270
11 Radio System 271
11.1 Transmitters and Receivers 271
11.2 Noise 275
11.2.1 Receiver Noise 275
11.2.2 Antenna Noise Temperature 284
11.3 Modulation and Demodulation of Signals 287
11.3.1 Analog Modulation 288
11.3.2 Digital Modulation 297
11.4 Radio Link Budget 304
References
12 Applications 307
12.1 Broadcasting 307
12.1.1 Broadcasting in Finland 308
12.1.2 Broadcasting Satellites 310
12.2 Radio Link Systems 312
12.2.1 Terrestrial Radio Links 312
12.2.2 Satellite Radio Links 314
12.3 Wireless Local Area Networks 314
12.4 Mobile Communication 317
12.5 Radionavigation 320
12.5.1 Hyperbolic Radionavigation Systems 320
12.5.2 Satellite Navigation Systems 323
12.5.3 Navigation Systems in Aviation 326
12.6 Radar 328
12.6.1 Pulse Radar 328
12.6.2 Doppler Radar 332
12.6.3 Frequency-Modulated Radar 334
12.6.4 Surveillance and Tracking Radars 335
12.7 Remote Sensing 336
12.7.1 Radiometry 337
12.7.2 Total Power Radiometer and Dicke Radiometer 340
12.7.3 Remote-Sensing Radar 343
12.8 Radio Astronomy 345
12.8.1 Radio Telescopes and Receivers 346
12.8.2 Antenna Temperature of Radio Sources 349
12.8.3 Radio Sources in the Sky
12.9 Sensors for Industrial Applications 353
12.9.1 Transmission Sensors 354
12.9.2 Resonators 35
12.9.3 Reflecrion Sensors 355
12.9.4 Radar Sensors 35
12.9.5 Radiometer Sensors 356
12.9.6 Imaging Sensors
12.10 Power Applicarions 356
12.11 Medical Applications 357
12.11.1 Thermography 358
12.11.2 Diathermy 359
12.11.3 Hyperthermia
12.12 Electronic Warfare 359
12.12.1 ES 360
12.12.2 EA
12.12.3 EP 361
References 36
13 Biological Effects and Safety Standards 363
References 366
Appendix A: Vector Operations 367
Appendix B: Physical Constants and Material Parameters 371
List of Acronyms 373 About the Authors 379
Index
Preface
The
word radio means techniques that are used in transmitting and
receiving information or power in the atmosphere or free space,
or in transmission lines utilizing electromagnetic
waves—so-called radio waves—but also the equipment needed therein.
This
book provides the reader with the basics in radio engineering,
the techniques needed to generate, control, detect, and use radio
waves. The text approaches the relevant problems both from the
electromagnetic theory based on Maxwell's equations and from the
circuit theory based on Kirchoff and Ohm's laws. Brief
introductions to the electromagnetic theory as well as to the
circuit theory are provided.
Besides
passive transmission lines and components, active RF circuits
are also addressed. The treatment oi the fundamentals of
antennas and radio wave propagation in this book leads the reader
to radio systems with noise and modulation considerations.
Finally,
a broad range of applications are described in addition to
various wireless communication applications:
radionavigation, radar, radiometry, remote sensing, radio
astronomy, RF sensors, power and medical applications, and
electronic warfare. The book ends with a short review of
biological effects and safety standards. While numerous books
specializing in various topics of radio engineering are
available, this book gives a well-balanced, general overview of the
whole topic. To the authors' knowledge, there are no similar books
available.
This
book got its origin from course lectures on the same topic at the
Helsinki University of Technology. When we found that the Finnish
text of our book (which was first published in 1992) written for our
students became very popular in the well-known Finnish wireless
industry, we decided to write a similar book in English in order
to provide an overview of this important technology to engineers,
managers, sales representatives, and administrators
globally.
In
order to take full advantage from the contents of this book, one
needs a solid background in physics and mathematics. The text can be
used also without this backgtound to obtain a general
understanding of radio engineering, especially in Chapters 1,
12, and 13, and partly in Chapters 9, 10, and 11.
Acknowledgments
We
authors would like to thank our many colleagues and students,
former and current, at the Helsinki University of Technology for
their encourage ment and many useful comments. We especially
want to mention the help of Professors Sergei Tretyakov, Pertti
Vainikainen, and Pekka Eskelinen. We would also like to express our
appreciation of the professional drawings made by Harri
Frestadius.
Dr.
Raisanen is grateful to the Observatoire de Paris (LERMA) and
Universite de Paris 6, and especially to Professor Pierre
Encrenaz for providing excellent conditions and good
atmosphere for this writing task during his sabbatical leave.
Finally, we would like to thank our family members for their very
important emotional support during the writing of this book.
1 Introduction to Radio Waves and Radio Engineering
Electromagnetic waves propagate in a vacuum with the speed of light, c =299,792,458 m/s or about 3x108
m/s. The electric and magnetic fields of a plane wave oscillate in
phase and are perpendicular to each other and to the direction of
propagation. The frequency of oscillation is/*, and the
wavelength is A = elf. Electromagnetic waves also may be
considered to behave like particles of zero rest mass.
The radiation consists of quanta, photons that have an energy of W = hf where h = 6.6256 x 10-34
Js is Planck's constant. There are many sources of electromagnetic
radiation. Accelerating charges produce electromagnetic
radiation, as when charges decelerating in an electric field
produce bremsstrahlung and charges orbiting in a magnetic field
produce synchrotton radiation.
The tandom thermal motion of charged particles in matter
produces thermal tadiation. Atoms and molecules emit spectral line
radiation as their energy level changes. The radiation
generated by oscillatots and emitted by antennas is based on
high-frequency alternating currents.
1.1 Radio Waves as a Part of the Electromagnetic Spectrum
Electromagnetic
waves cover a wide range of frequencies or wavelengths, as shown in
Figure 1.1. The classification is based mainly on the sources of
2 Radio Engineering for Wireless Communication and Sensor
Applications f/Hz Gamma rays X rays Visible light <:
Ultraviolet Infrared Submm waves 10' Millimeter waves Microwaves
Radio waves < RF waves X/m SHF UHF VHF HF MF VLF Figure 1.1
Electromagnetic spectrum. radiation.
Boundaries of the ranges are not sharp, since different sources may
prodtice waves in overlapping ranges of frequencies. The
wavelengths of radio waves range from thousands of kilometers down
to 0.1 mm.
The
frequency range is from a few hertz up to 3 THz. The waves having
shortet wavelengths or higher frequencies than radio waves are
classified as infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, x-rays, and
gamma rays. Infrared waves are produced by molecules and hot
bodies, light and ultraviolet waves by atoms and molecules, and
x-rays by the inner electrons in atoms. Commercial x-ray tubes
emit bremsstrahlung.
Gamma
rays originate in the nuclei of atoms and overlap the upper part of
the x-ray spectrum. Introduction to Radio Waves and Radio
Engineering 3 The spectrum of radio waves is divided into ranges
having a width of one decade, as indicated in Table 1.1 and
Figure 1.1. Waves below 300 MHz are often called radio frequency
(RF) waves. Ultrahigh frequency (UHF) and superhigh frequency
(SHF) waves (300 MHz to 30 GHz) are called microwaves. Often the
boundary between RF waves and microwaves is set to 1 GHz.
The
microwave range is further subdivided into bands according to
waveguide bands, as shown in Table 1.2. Extremely high frequency
(EHF) range is called the millimeter-wave range and the frequency
range from 300 GHz to 3,000 GHz the submillimeter-wave range. The
interaction of electromagnetic waves with matter depends on the
energy of photons. In genetal, shorter waves cotresponding to
energetic photons interact more strongly than longer waves…
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